The student’s academic self-concept and its link with ESL

School achievement and success such as high grades and school completion do not take place in a vacuum. To achieve success at school, students must not only value school but believe they are capable of achieving success. The influence of psychological factors like self-concept, motivation, and readiness to take on challenges are important factors that predict school success or ESL (e.g. Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Lan & Lanthier, 2003).

Typically, children enter the middle-childhood years very optimistic about their ability to master a wide array of tasks, including their schoolwork (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Parsons & Ruble, 1977; Stipek, 1984). When asked how good they are at reading, maths etc., most first graders rank themselves near the top of the class, and there is essentially no relationship between their ability self-ratings and actual performance levels (Nicholls, 1979; Wigfield, 1997). By age 10, however, students are typically less optimistic, and there is a much stronger correlation between their self-ratings and actual performance. Their academic self-concepts and expectations of success tend to decline during elementary school. This decline in their academic self-concept and motivation for school continues through adolescence, and may lead students to avoid certain school subjects or drop out of school altogether.

This article explores various aspects of the relationship between students’ academic self-concept and ESL risk factors. It explains the development of academic self-concept and presents the role teachers play in it. Moreover, it offers some practical suggestions for teachers to use in pedagogical practice. It includes some examples and suggestions for teachers to consider while giving students feedback on their school work and achievements so as to support the development of a healthy academic self-concept.

The article is based on a review of the literature entailing searches in the PsycINFO, ERIC, Proquest, Science Direct and Google scholar, Proquest Dissertation & Theses Global databases. Keywords used in the literature search were predictors for ESL, self-concept, academic self-concept, self-efficacy, school achievements, motivation for school work, school dropout etc. For the purposes of the article, we mainly considered scientific papers and some scientific books available online.

Self-concept is defined as a person’s conception of themselves (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). It includes the set of characteristics, abilities, attitudes and values a person believes defines them. Although self-concept can be viewed and measured as a general construct, studies show it is multidimensional and that it should be defined and measured in different areas of life, such as academic self-concept or self-concept with respect to reading etc. (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003).

The development of self is a process of various interrelated and interacting developments or phases occurring in an individual’s life. Individuals are not born with a self-concept or an awareness of self-perception. It must be learned and developed implicitly and indirectly throughout one’s life (Hattie, 1992). Frey and Carlock (1983) suggested that many modalities of learning influence the development of self-concept, including direct experience, verbal/nonverbal human interaction, social learning through parenting, schooling, and various group memberships. The social context of the child is considered to exert the greatest influence on development of the child’s self-concept (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996; Shavelson et al., 1976). The self-concept builds on the child’s experience and learning history and is influenced by important people close to the child (Nalavany & Carawan, 2012; Shavelson et al., 1976). Some researchers argue that it is the parents who have the primary influence over development of the child’s self-concept (Emler, 2001), while others contend that friends and teachers have a bigger impact on developing an individual student’s self-image (e.g. Burnett & Demnar, 1996; Burns, 1982; Glazzard, 2010; Humphrey, 2003; Troia, Shankland, & Wolbers, 2012).

Learning about oneself begins with physical interactions and continues through behavioural and social development. Finally, it is psychologically internalised. During infancy, the initial mother-infant relationship provides the responses to and acceptance of the infant by the mother. This internalisation of the care, love and feelings of significant others during infancy becomes part of the internal structure of the self-concept. It influences both the initial and subsequent levels of self-concept (Bowlby, 2008). Throughout childhood, the child begins to interact more and more with his/her social environment. Their level of social competence is defined by obvious success and failure. More precisely, it is not the failure to achieve per se that builds a negative self-concept; it is the way significant people in the child’s life react to such failure and interpret it that defines the outcome as a failure and thus builds the negative self-concept (Pollard & Pollard, 2014).

Middle childhood is the period when the initial rapid physical growth and physical advancement begins to slow down (Sols & Mullen, 1982). The child’s social experiences expand to the school environment and significant others begin to include teachers and other adults. Self-concept in middle childhood relates especially to performance in school work tasks and in games with friends (Bean & Lipka, 1986). This is also the period when the academic self-concept starts to develop. The academic self-concept is part of the self-concept that includes one’s characteristics, abilities, attitudes and values that refer to one’s academic context in comparison to academic standards and peers (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). In their academic context, students primarily define themselves according to the feedback they receive from the teacher (and wider school environment) about their academic achievements and other school-related behaviour. Establishing a healthy academic self-concept is especially important at the beginning of schooling, when students first receive the teacher’s feedback about their achievements. However, each new teacher the student meets becomes an opportunity to obtain different feedback (perhaps feedback about a new school subject) and thus improve or expand their academic self-concept. At the same time, each relationship with a new teacher also brings the risk of negatively influencing the academic self-concept, especially in academic subjects or areas new to the student.

In late childhood and adolescence, the social context and the school environment become even more important factors that influence the development of self-concept. The school structure changes from a self-contained class with a limited number of students and guided instruction to a more open schedule of classes with a bigger number of students and/or teachers and independent instruction. Peer interactions become more important and intense. This all brings pre-adolescents face to face with some important changes that then lead to changes in or threats to their self-concept and academic self-concept (Hattie, 1992). Moreover, when adolescents change schools and move to high school their academic self-concept encounters a fresh challenge: it is being re-evaluated in another context, in their eyes possibly also a more serious and important context than elementary school (Bean & Lipka, 1986; Hattie, 1992). It is thus even more important for teachers who teach adolescents to understand how they can support the development of a healthy academic self-concept among their students. This explains why it is even more important to pay attention to students’ academic self-concept in the periods of pre-adolescence and adolescence.

Students’ perceptions of themselves and their abilities are an important component of achievement motivation and a predictor of student engagement in school (National Research Council, 2003). Different studies have examined a number of self-perceptions and their relationship to high school ESL and graduation. All of these perceptions are constructed as composite measures based on student responses to questions about their academic self-concept.

Academic self-concept is often shown to be an important precursor of school engagement, itself shown to be a predictor of ESL. More specifically, a positive academic self-concept results in higher levels of task engagement (Eccles, 1983). This relationship between academic self-concept and school engagement also forms part of the conceptual model of high school performance (Rumberger & Rotermund, 2012) where self-perception (as an overall term for self-concept and self-esteem) is considered a precursor of engagement and engagement is viewed as a precursor of student achievement, which in turn can influence subsequent attitudes, including self-perception, and is also regarded as an important ESL predictor (e.g. Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Lan & Lanthier, 2003).

Different studies have also established a correlation between academic self-concept and academic achievement (e.g. Helmke & van Aken, 1995; Skaalvik & Hagtvet, 1990), which is also considered an important predictor of ESL (e.g. Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Lan & Lanthier, 2003). Moreover, research reveals the importance of a positive self-concept for achieving good results at school (Schunk, 2003). It is also shown that students with various degrees of self-conception exhibit different cognitive, social and emotional behaviour at school (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003), such as students’ academic engagement (e.g. Skaalvik & Rankin, 1996; Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990), goal-setting (Bong, 2001; Skaalvik, 1997), task choice (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Pajares & Miller, 1995), persistence and effort (e.g. Skaalvik & Rankin, 1995), intrinsic motivation (Gottfried, 1990; Harter, 1982; Mac Iver, Stipek, & Daniels, 1991; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988; Skaalvik, 1997; Skaalvik, & Rankin, 1996), strategy use (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Wolters & Pintrich, 1998), performance and achievement (e.g. Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996, Skaalvik & Vals, 1999) and even career selection (e.g. Bets & Hackett, 1981, 1983).

Figure 1. The relationship between self-concept and students’ cognitive, social and emotional behaviour

A recent study (PPMI, 2014) identifies the competence profiles of ESLers and underachievers. The study results show that ESLers tend to have low self-esteem, a low academic self-concept and a lower perception of self-efficacy. Other studies reveal that self-concept plays a significant role in enhancing students’ intrinsic motivation, positive emotion, and performance – all shown in different studies to be important factors for preventing ESL (e.g. Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Lan & Lanthier, 2003).

At school, the teacher is an important adult for students. Students’ academic self-concept is built through the teacher-student relationship, thus the teacher has an important impact on developing the students’ healthy academic self-concept that will support their academic development (Bean & Lipka, 1986; Milivojević, 2004; Rutar Leban, 2011) and act as a factor preventing ESL. It is hence important for teachers to understand their role in developing students’ academic self-concept. Moreover, it is important they learn how to efficiently and supportively give their students feedback about their academic achievements in order to help them build a healthy academic self-concept (Milivojević, 2004).

Milivojević (2004) explains that to support the development of an appropriate (academic) self-concept the child (student) must learn to distinguish between himself as a person and his/her behaviour, mistakes/failures, successes etc. The child (student) needs to understand that mistakes and failures are an inevitable part of life, but do not define the person. Students must accept that mistakes are a necessary element of learning and that a person makes mistakes throughout their whole life. He argues that the verbal communication between the significant other and the child is absolutely crucial in this process. He explains that when a child (student) makes a mistake, the adult must target their criticism at the child’s (student’s) behaviour, not at them as a person. It is not the failure to achieve that produces low self-esteem and a negative (academic) self-concept. As already stated, it is the way significant people in the child’s life react to such failure that defines their (academic) self-concept (Pollard & Pollard, 2014).

According to Milivojević (2004), clearly distinguishing between the child’s (student’s) behaviour and them as a person supports a positive and productive (academic) self-concept even when the child’s (student’s) behaviour/achievement is not as expected. This is important for the child’s (student’s) motivation. It is only if children (students) believe they are capable of producing better behaviour/results/achievements (if they have a healthy, positive and realistic self-concept) that they will be motivated to put greater effort into changing their inappropriate behaviour or achieving improved results (Milivojević, 2004). If they receive negative feedback addressed to them as a person (e.g. “You are slow and inaccurate in multiplying”), they start to believe they are incapable and do not see any sense in trying harder since there is no ‘capability within’ that can be further developed through practising/additional effort. If teachers understand these basic rules in communicating feedback on students’ work, they can easily apply them in the classroom and thereby help students develop a healthy academic self-concept and consequently prevent ESL.

Below are some examples that help clarify the difference between criticism addressed to the student’s behaviour and criticism addressed to a student as a person. The examples also include an additional explanation to help students distinguish between the person and the behaviour.

Example 1: A student (secondary school/high school) has prepared a science project and is presenting it to the class. His presentation is not at the best of his capabilities. In term of grades, he gets a C, although he is mostly used to receiving A and B.

Criticism addressed to the child as a person: You were boring and not clear enough. (unsuitable for academic self-concept)

To state the difference between the student as a person and their mistake/behaviour even more clearly, the teacher should also explain the difference to the student.

Criticism addressed to the behaviour with an explanation: From my point of view, your presentation lacked a bit of clarification at times and I missed greater interaction with the audience. When we present something, we usually think about the audience we will be presenting to and prepare the presentation from their perspective, trying to engage them as much as possible and make it as clear as possible for them. I believe you are capable of doing this and trust that you will be able to improve your presentation next time.

In this way, the adults (teachers) criticise the inappropriate behaviour/result/lower achievement, but also communicate to the children that they can produce the appropriate behaviour/higher achievement because they are capable of doing that. The message the student receives to help build his/her (academic) self-concept is ‘I am capable of making a better presentation, I just made a mistake and this mistake does not define me’. As already explained, it is important that the teacher affirms the difference between the student as a person and their achievement/mistake/behaviour by explaining this difference to the student.

Example 2: A student (3rd grade of primary school) was very slow in doing the multiplication table and made 10 mistakes in 20 equations.

Criticism addressed to the child as a person: You are slow and inaccurate in multiplying. (unsuitable for academic self-concept)

To help the student understand the difference between them as a person and their result in multiplying, the teacher should explain even further.

Criticism addressed to the behaviour with an explanation: I noticed that your results with the multiplication table today show you solved half the equations correctly and the time you needed for solving was slower than yesterday. I know you can multiply and I believe if you put more effort into it tomorrow you can solve 15 equations correctly and improve your solving time.

The same rules also apply when communicating to a student criticism of their inappropriate behaviour that does not include their academic performance. In this case, the teacher’s feedback does not impact the student’s academic self-concept but still has an impact on the student’s general self-concept (e.g. the “relational” self-concept – the student’s conception of their own relational competencies).

Example 3: A 12-year-old girl responds rudely to a schoolmate

Criticism addressed to the child as a person: You were rude. (unsuitable for self-concept)

If the teacher wants to pinpoint the difference between the person and the mistake/behaviour, they will explain the difference to the student.

Criticism addressed to the behaviour with an explanation: From my perspective, your response to your schoolmate was a bit rude. Usually, we use more polite ways in communication. I believe you are a polite girl and I trust that next time you will be able to find a more polite answer for your schoolmate.

In this way, we criticise the inappropriate behaviour but also communicate to the student that they can produce more appropriate behaviour because they are capable of doing that. The message the girl receives for her self-concept is ‘I am capable of a polite response, I just made a mistake and this mistake does not define me or my relational competencies’.

Since different studies show that a negative academic self-concept has an important impact on ESL (e.g. PPMI, 2014; Rumberger & Rotermund, 2012), we believe that understanding these principles of giving negative feedback and applying them in the everyday routine will help teachers better support their students, especially adolescent lower achievers who have been shown to be most at risk for ESL (e.g. Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Lan & Lanthier, 2003). Low achievers are students who every day receive the most negative feedback from teachers. When they enter adolescence, they already have a negative academic self-concept. By establishing appropriate communication and a good relationship with teachers, the teachers can help them change their negative academic self-concept into a more realistic and functional one. This change may be crucial to their decision to stay at or leave school.

Self-concept develops through our life experiences in relationship with the environment, specifically in our relationship with significant others in our environment (Nalavany & Carawan, 2012). It includes the set of characteristics, abilities, attitudes and values an individual believes defines them. It contains an individual’s perception in a variety of areas (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976). Academic self-concept forms part of one’s self-concept that covers the area of academic education. It encompasses one’s characteristics, abilities, attitudes and values that refer to the academic context one finds oneself in.

Academic self-concept is developed in the academic/school environment in which the teacher represents a significant other for the students. Therefore, teachers have an important role to play in developing their students’ academic self-concept. Their reactions to their students’ school-related behaviour and achievements, and their verbal and non-verbal feedback on the students’ work provide basic information on which the students can build their academic self-concept (Milivojević, 2004; Rutar Leban, 2011).

This explains why it is important for teachers to understand how they can give appropriate feedback about school work to students so as to support the development of a healthy academic self-concept. It is vital for teachers to recognise the difference between criticism of behaviour and criticism of the person (Milivojević, 2004). Negative feedback should only be given vis-à-vis the behaviour/achievement/result and never the person. Moreover, while communicating feedback, teachers should help the students understand the difference between them as persons and their behaviour/achievements/successes while also providing encouragement for their future progress/improvement. According to Milivojević (2004), this helps students maintain a positive academic self-concept even when their achievements are not as expected. This is important for their motivation. It is only if students believe they are capable of achieving better results that they will be motivated to put more effort into achieving improved results (Milivojević, 2004).

Further, possessing a lower academic self-concept is an important ESL risk factor. Students who left school before completing it had lower self-esteem, a lower academic self-concept and a lower perception of self-efficiency than other students (PPMI, 2014). This is why it is even more important for teachers to support the development of a healthy, positive and realistic academic self-concept among their students’ to help them establish a lifelong learning concept of living and assist them in staying at school until they have accomplished their academic goals.